As civil society actors, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) often are viewed as integral to the creation and maintenance of democracy. The basic premise is that these organizations advance democratic ideals by representing public interests, socializing individuals into norms of citizenship, and assisting in the delivery of services. Nowhere was this vision more prevalent than in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) at the time of the fall of state socialism. Due to the role that dissidents and opposition groups played in exposing the regime’s inadequacies, expectations ran high that NGOs would hold state authorities accountable in the new democracies.
The desire to help NGOs fulfill their democratic promise was reinforced by domestic and foreign governments and foundations, all of which dedicated resources to newly formed organizations as well as to some of the state-sponsored associations active in the previous regime that became independent. Efforts were made to develop NGO capacity in many domains, but from the outset, the environmental arena was a priority for numerous funders. Their interest was partly driven by the goal to rebuild civil society, and partly was a reaction to the high visibility of environmental activists in the period leading up and subsequent to the fall of the regimes.
The euphoria of the early transition years has since waned. Despite the initial emphasis on developing the capacity of environmental NGOs (ENGOs) and promoting civic engagement in environmental policymaking, management, and education, the perception has become widespread across the region that some of these organizations, particularly those that rely on contentious tactics, are acting in their own self-interests rather than those of society.
ENGOs in Central and Eastern Europe
To understand the character and activities of ENGOs in the region, in 2007 I conducted a survey of environmental organizations in the countries that joined the European Union in 2004. In the summary that follows, I report the results of the survey, which represents the responses of 838 ENGOs from the Czech Republic (206), Estonia (97), Hungary (227), Latvia (35), Lithuania (20), Poland (142), Slovakia (54), and Slovenia (57), or 60 percent of those contacted.
Funding Sources and Income Levels
Since the transition, ENGOs have had to adapt to new funding realities associated with democratic societies and market economies. As Table 1 shows, when asked about the sources from which they receive funds directly, membership dues and domestic governments were the most important. Domestic government funding usually consists of grants or contract work sponsored by ministries of the environment, education, or regional development and, in some cases, subsidies from municipal funds. While the original sources of these funds vary, in many instances they are disbursed by the European Union (EU) through its associated institutional bodies, funds, and programmes to government agencies for research, education, and project-based activities. Some of these funds, in turn, are channeled by domestic governments to ENGOs to perform specific tasks. Although dues are critical to many organizations, most have struggled to generate membership even though these annual payments usually are quite modest.
In contrast to domestic funding sources, the ENGOs rated transnational funders as their least common financial supporters. Early on, the field was crowded with foreign foundations and foreign governments, including their bilateral agencies. In the run up to accession, most of the funders left the region or phased out their support. This transformation is reflected in the survey results which show that foreign foundations and foreign governments are the lowest- ranked supporters. While still at the lower end of the rankings, the most active transnational funder is the EU which, in addition to channeling support through governments, makes funding available directly to ENGOs through some of its programmes.
Table 1: Direct Sources of ENGO Support, 2005-2006
Many ENGOs rely on a single source of funding for half or more of their annual income. Among these primary sources, once again, the largest were domestic governments and membership dues. The EU and domestic foundations (including intermediary funders) also serve as sources of primary support, although to a more limited number of organizations. Market forces have had an impact on organizational support: More than half of the ENGOs reported receiving at least some funding from sales and corporate sponsorships; and many count on these sources as their primary means of support.
Notable disparities are present between those NGOs at the lower and upper ends of the financial spectrum. Most ENGOs have very limited incomes; 55 percent reported that their annual budgets are less than 10,000EUR, and 77 percent less than 50,000EUR. As shown in Table 2, 11 percent of the ENGOs reported no income. At the other extreme, of those organizations that have incomes of 100,000EUR and above, 8 percent are in the 100,000-250,000EUR bracket, 4 percent are in the 250,000 to 500,000EUR range, and 2 percent have annual budgets above 500,000EUR. In general, ENGOs with higher levels of funding have higher levels of staffing, suggesting that those with greater financial resources also tend to be more professionalized.
Table 2: Annual Income of CEE ENGOs in 2006
The sources of an ENGO’s funding are significantly related to its annual income. Even though relatively few ENGOs reported that the EU and foreign foundations are their primary funders, those that did have the highest incomes. In addition, those that drew their support from the EU, as well as from sales, had the greatest number of full and part-time staff. This suggests that ENGOs receiving funds directly from the EU tend to be among the wealthiest and most professionalized. While many ENGOs rely on dues and domestic foundations as their primary sources of support, in general, these organizations have the lowest annual incomes. Not surprisingly, ENGOs with large memberships also are the ones that rely on membership dues as their primary source of support. The results indicate that they also are the ENGOs with the lowest number of full- and part-time staff members.
Activities and Reported Impact
The majority of ENGOs indicated that they engage in information dissemination activities (88 percent), environmental management (77 percent), and education and training (76 percent). Most thought that these efforts had an impact, particularly in terms of raising awareness and protecting nature. A majority of ENGOs also indicated that they engage in activities related to community and civil society support (64 percent) and policy promotion (58 percent). Community support activities consist of offering administrative, legal, and capacity-building services as well as providing expert opinion at local meetings and hearings while policy promotion includes lobbying, meeting with government representatives, drafting legislation, and conducting research and analysis. A smaller percentage of ENGOs pursue direct action tactics (39 percent) such as protest, petitions, and letter-writing campaigns. These organizations maintain that their efforts not only mobilize the public and call attention to issues, but also contribute to deliberation in society and democracy.
Do Funding Sources Determine Activities?
Many sources of ENGO funding correlate with particular types of organizational activity. As Table 3 illustrates, the more funding an NGO receives from the EU, the more likely it is to engage in policy promotion, community support, and education. Fewer ENGOs receive funds from foreign foundations, and those that do pursue a more diverse range of activities. Alternatively, organizations that engage in educational activities, such as offering training courses or lecturing at schools, receive the highest levels of support from both domestic and foreign foundations. Further, ENGOs that focus on information dissemination tend to find sponsorship from corporations, while those engaging in direct action generally fund their activities through dues and individual contributions. Some foreign foundations also allocate funds for direct action, but on a very limited basis. Even though a majority of ENGOs receive funding from domestic governments, there is no statistically significant relationship between this source of support and particular activities.
The Diversification of ENGOs
The survey suggests that ENGOs in CEE have diversified into three very general categories, each making important contributions to environmental governance. The first category, Traditionalists, either are continuations of nature conservation associations active under state socialism, such as Polish League for Nature Protection, Hungarian National Society of Conservationists, Czech Union for Nature Protection, and the Latvian Society of Nature and Monument Protection; or are newly formed organizations that follow a similar model. These ENGOs primarily work directly on nature protection and environmental management, provide educational services, and disseminate information on nature-related topics. Organizations in this category have modest financial resources and tend to receive support from national governments and dues-paying members, although some obtain corporate sponsorships. While they share many characteristics with state-sponsored conservation associations of the past, including being populated by volunteer nature enthusiasts, they continue to engage in nature protection work while promoting democracy by taking independent action, supporting government conservation efforts, and socializing participants into norms of civic engagement.
Table 3: Significant Relationships between Funding Sources and ENGO Activities*
*Significant at p<.05
The second category, Activists, are organizations that became highly visible at the time state socialism collapsed and that were lauded for bringing attention to environmental degradation. These ENGOs frequently have members and typically the lowest budgets, particularly if they rely on dues or individual contributions to support their work. While this group includes many affiliates of transnational activist organizations, it also is comprised of numerous nationally-based ENGOs. Collectively, their use of direct action has resulted in Activist ENGOs becoming a focal point for controversy and criticism of NGOs more broadly. Even though their place in society has been challenged, these organizations are critical to advancing democracy and environmental protection since they represent a membership, alert the public to critical issues, pressure governments to adopt environmental policies, and hold public officials and corporations accountable for their actions.
The third category of organizations, Policy Professionals, focus on policy promotion, education, and community support. These organizations have the highest levels of income and staff. Much of the funding for this select group of ENGOs comes from foreign foundations and EU programmes. Although they do not take action on behalf of members, and often focus on implementing the agendas of their transnational funders, these ENGOs tend to be the most esteemed for their expertise and use of professional skills to support policy initiatives. Policy Professionals further environmental protection and democracy by engaging in policy debates and enhancing domestic capacity for civic engagement. More often than not, these ENGOs move from project to project, seeking funding to support their organizations as opposed to serving the needs of specific interest groups.
Activist NGOs such as Greenpeace in the Czech Republic bring public attention to environmental degradation © Panos Pictures
Over the years, disparities have emerged in the capacities of different types of ENGOs in CEE countries. Traditional and Activist organizations provide a voice for their members, advance norms of participation, and offer environmental support services, but frequently are criticized for their tactics and are overlooked by many funders. In contrast, the support that Policy Professionals provide to governments and communities is viewed by many public officials and funders as the appropriate role for ENGOs and, as such, they attract the highest levels of financial support, even though their activities often reflect the priorities of their transnational donors rather than those of domestic constituents.
JoAnn Carmin is Associate Professor of Environmental Policy and Planning at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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